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According to the cognitive action architecture approach (CAA-A; Schack, 2002, 2004), mental representations play a central role in movement control, as they are hierarchically structured in long-term memory and differentiate due to expertise. By means of structural dimensional analysis - motoric (SDA-M; Schack, 2012), movements are subdivided into basic action concepts (BACs) that are related to each other, to make mental representation structures visible. The method seeks to psychometrically depict the structural dimensions of conceptually ordered motor knowledge, both case-by-case and group-specific, and has been applied to a variety of sports contexts (Land, Volchenkov, Bläsing, & Schack, 2013). Although the examination of mental representations seems promising regarding the gain of insights into the structure of movements, motor learning processes and the relation of cognitive and movement structures, research in the field of educational research has not been conducted so far. Therefore, the aim of this dissertation project is to address the main research question: What influence can the knowledge about mental representation structures of movements have in the context of physical education and the optimization processes of learning and teaching?
The research issue, research program and research questions are presented in the general introduction of this thesis (chapter 1). To answer the main research question, three different perspectives are introduced in the main part.
The first perspective focuses on the structure of motor skills and the methodological approach to acquiring the mental representation structures. The practical implementation of the SDA-M is discussed in a text-image comparison of questionnaire items (chapter 2). The study aimed at determining an appropriate item format for the use of the SDA-M in the context of physical education. In light of the findings, the use of text or combined items is recommended when applying the SDA-M to children or adolescents.
The second perspective focuses on knowledge about the mental representation structure of learners and their execution of the skill. Based on pupils’ mental representation structure, specific instructions are developed that might contribute to the optimization of movement execution (chapter 3). Results revealed that specific instructions based on pupils’ mental representation of a gymnastics skill have a positive impact on their mental representation structure and on their motor performance.
The third perspective focuses on knowledge about the mental representation structure of teachers, here represented by sports students, examining its relation with their evaluation of pupils’ movements (chapter 4). Results indicate that more structured mental representations are linked with a more precise performance evaluation. Therefore, a relation between physical education students’ mental representation structure and their evaluation of gymnastics skills can be assumed.
Conclusively, in the general discussion, the key findings are highlighted, limitations are discussed and an outlook concerning practical implications and further research is provided (chapter 5). In sum, according to the findings of this dissertation, the acquisition and analysis of the structure of mental representations might constitute an effective means of optimizing the quality of physical education and can be seen as important for improving physical education teacher training as well as motor learning processes in general.
For more than 50 years now, the Emotional Oddball Paradigm (EOP) has been employed to investigate how the human brain reacts to sudden changes in the emotionality of environmental stimuli. In the EOP, a sequence of one class of stimuli (standards) is sometimes interrupted by less frequent stimuli of a different class (deviants). Some or all of these stimuli are emotional. Many different processes, behaviors, and populations have been the subjects of EOP research.
In part one, this doctoral thesis aims to both provide an overview of existing literature in order to classify variants of the EOP, and to integrate EEG, fMRI, and behavioral results, including results from memory experiments (with a special emphasis on emotion-induced anterograde and retrograde memory effects). In the second part, results of four memory experiments with words as stimuli are reported as well as one replication attempt with pictorial stimulus material. While the results with regard to written verbal material were rather inconclusive, significant amnesic retrograde effects were found with pictorial stimuli, if negative deviants were presented. Throughout all experiments, however, memory performances for standards neighboring positive deviants were unaffected. Results are discussed in the light of existing literature and advice for future directions is given.
The victimization-fear paradox describes the finding that older adults are more afraid of becoming a victim of crime than younger adults, although they are statistically less frequent victims. This result is mainly based on the so-called standard question. In contrast, questions regarding the frequency of experiencing fear of crime and the risk assessment show no age differences. Older adults, however, behave more cautious, which may explain the lower victimization firstly, on the other hand, however, may underestimate the frequency of fear. Within the framework of an action-theoretic approach, the question was how the age-related increase in precautious behavior can be explained. Fear of crime has been worked out within an emotion theoretical approach. In the first three studies the increase of precautious behavior has been studied as an expression of heightened fear caused by an age-related increase in physical vulnerability. Situational fear of crime was induced by means of a vignette technique. While there was a positive relationship between physical vulnerability, situational fear, and precautious behavior, older adults did not generally respond with higher fear. On the contrary, in two vignettes younger adults reported reliably more fear than older adults. In two other studies, age differences were examined in the threat evaluation with a modified affective priming task. Here, young adults showed a larger priming effect than older adults. When time to respond was shortened experimentally, the magnitude of the priming effect increased in both age groups. A negative correlation between the frequency of fear and the size of the priming effect among the older adults provides evidence that (negative) information is processed differently in this age group. The last study explores precautious behavior as an age-related change in gain-risk calculations. Risk behavior might be associated with gains that lose their incentive value with age. Moreover, older adults might have modified ways of avoiding risky behavior. In general, the studies provide insights in the complexity of the subject matter. While situational fear of crime seems not to generally increase with age, the results of the priming studies indicate that care needs to be taken with regard to potential regulation mechanisms in responding to the tasks. Moreover, the findings clarify that an approach has to be taken that employs various measurement techniques as well as an integration of different theoretical advances.
Die Frage, wie Mehrheitseinfluss perzeptuelles Entscheiden verändern kann, beschäftigt die soziale Einflussforschung seit ihren Ursprüngen. Auch heute erscheint dabei die Annahme eines Zwei-Prozess Modells basierend auf normativem und informationalem Einfluss (Deutsch & Gerard, 1955) als dominierend. Dieses Zwei-Prozess Modell steht im Widerspruch zu den Annahmen bezüglich Referent Informational Influence (RII; Turner, 1982), da RII die Entstehung sozialen Einflusses durch nur einen Prozess - die Unsicherheit durch Nichtübereinstimmung mit Personen einer Eigengruppe - erklärt.
Die vorliegende Arbeit testete die Annahmen zu RII, indem mit Hilfe des Diffusion Decision Model (DDM; Ratcliff, 1978) untersucht wurde, welche kognitiven Prozesse bei visuellem Entscheiden durch Eigen- oder Fremdgruppeneinfluss verändert werden. Studien 1 und 2 konnten in Unterstützung der Annahmen zu RII zeigen, dass Eigengruppen stärkeren sozialen Einfluss als Fremdgruppen ausübten und dieser Effekt hauptsächlich durch eine stärkere Wahrnehmungsverzerrung in den Eigengruppenbedingungen im Vergleich zu den Fremdgruppenbedingungen verursacht wurde. In Studie 3 wurde getestet, ob nicht-menschliche Agenten (Computeralgorithmen) ähnlich wie Menschen in der Lage sind durch sozialen Einfluss eine persistierende soziale Norm zu implementieren. Im verwendeten Onlineparadigma übten nicht-menschliche Agenten ähnlich starken sozialen Einfluss wie menschliche Einflussquellen aus und dieser Einfluss stützte sich bei beiden Quellen hauptsächlich auf eine stärkere Wahrnehmungsverzerrung im Vergleich zu einer Phase ohne Beeinflussung. Der Effekt zeigte sich auch nach der Phase der eigentlichen Einflussnahme, was auf das Erlernen einer sozialen Norm hinweist. Die Befunde legen nahe, dass nicht-menschliche Agenten unter gewissen Rahmenbedingungen als ähnlich starke soziale Einflussquellen wie menschliche Agenten angesehen werden können.
